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DLR Study Reveals New Drivers of Contrail Formation Beyond Soot

DLR research finds volatile compounds and oil vapors contribute to contrail ice crystals despite soot reduction by lean-burn engines using low-sulfur fuels.

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Aviation’s climate impact is heavily influenced by contrail cirrus clouds, which form when hot engine exhaust meets cold, humid air at cruising altitudes. For years, the prevailing scientific consensus held that soot particles were the primary drivers of ice crystal formation in these contrails. However, a new study published in the scientific journal Nature challenges this long-held understanding, revealing that reducing soot does not automatically equate to fewer contrail ice crystals.

According to an official press release from the German Aerospace Center (DLR), recent measurement flights demonstrate that volatile organic compounds and lubricating oil vapors play a crucial role in contrail formation, particularly when aircraft utilize extremely low-sulfur fuels and modern lean-burn engines. The findings stem from the NEOFUELS/VOLCAN project, a collaborative research initiative involving DLR, Airbus, CFM International, and academic partners.

The research highlights a critical gap in current climate models, which may underestimate the environmental impact of contrails by failing to account for ice formation on liquid volatile particles. As the aviation industry pushes toward climate-compatible flight, we expect these insights to shape future engine designs, fuel compositions, and oil venting architectures.

Chasing Emissions at Cruising Altitude

To investigate the emissions of modern lean-burn engines, researchers conducted a series of complex flight tests in the spring of 2023. The NEOFUELS/VOLCAN campaign marked the first time emissions and resulting contrails from a lean-burn engine were measured in flight.

High-Speed Chase Maneuvers

The DLR utilized its Falcon 20E research aircraft to trail an Airbus A321neo equipped with CFM LEAP-1A engines. Over the course of 15 flights, the Falcon 20E performed high-speed chase maneuvers at an altitude of 10 kilometers above the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. The research aircraft sampled the exhaust plume at distances ranging from 40 to 250 meters and intercepted fully developed contrails several kilometers downstream.

By modifying engine control settings, CFM International enabled the researchers to compare emissions under both lean-burn and rich-burn operations. The engines were also tested using fuels with varying levels of sulfur and aromatics, providing a comprehensive dataset on how different variables affect contrail properties.

Beyond Soot: The Role of Volatile Particles

The flight measurements yielded unexpected results regarding the relationship between soot and contrails. While lean-burn operations successfully reduced soot emissions by three orders of magnitude compared to rich-burn conditions, the number of contrail ice crystals remained high.

A Shift in Scientific Understanding

The data indicated that the concentration of ice crystals far exceeded the number of measured soot particles. Instead, researchers observed a massive formation of liquid volatile particles in the cooling exhaust plume.

“The defining moment came when the initial data revealed no soot, but plenty of contrail ice crystals,” said Christiane Voigt, scientific lead of the project at DLR and Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz (JGU), in the DLR press release. “It immediately became clear that advancing our understanding of contrail formation will be essential for shaping the technological future of aviation.”

The study found that when using ultra-low-sulfur fuels, volatile organic compounds and lubrication oil vapors become increasingly significant in the formation of new particles. While lower sulfur content in fuels did reduce the number of contrail ice crystals, the presence of these other volatile elements means that soot reduction alone is insufficient to mitigate contrail-related climate impacts.

Updating Climate Models and Mitigation Strategies

The findings from the NEOFUELS/VOLCAN project extend the classical theory of contrail formation. Because most current climate models do not incorporate ice formation on liquid particles, they likely underestimate the true climate impact of aviation contrails.

Engineering Levers for Climate-Compatible Flight

To address these newly identified drivers of contrail formation, future mitigation strategies will need to look beyond current emission standards, which primarily regulate gases and non-volatile particles. The DLR notes that while current fuel sulfur content is capped at 0.3 percent by mass, with typical levels around 0.046 percent, further reductions may be necessary.

Additionally, optimizing lubrication oil venting systems could provide engine developers with a new engineering lever to minimize volatile particles and, consequently, the climate impact of contrails.

AirPro News analysis

At AirPro News, we note that the aviation industry has heavily invested in lean-burn engine technology as a primary means to reduce soot and nitrogen oxide emissions. However, this Nature study underscores the complexity of atmospheric chemistry and the unintended consequences of optimizing for a single emission metric. If volatile organic compounds and lubricating oils are significant contributors to contrail cirrus clouds, engine manufacturers may need to redesign oil venting architectures, a component previously overlooked in climate mitigation discussions. Furthermore, we believe this could accelerate regulatory pressure to mandate ultra-low-sulfur sustainable aviation fuels (SAF) globally, as traditional jet fuel may no longer align with the industry’s net-zero climate targets once these updated contrail models are adopted by policymakers.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are contrails and why do they matter?

Contrails are line-shaped ice clouds that form behind aircraft at cruising altitudes when hot engine exhaust mixes with cold, humid air. They are a major contributor to aviation’s overall climate impact because they can trap heat in the Earth’s atmosphere.

Did lean-burn engines reduce contrail formation?

While lean-burn engines reduced soot emissions by three orders of magnitude during the tests, the number of contrail ice crystals remained high. This indicates that other factors, such as volatile organic compounds and oil vapors, drive contrail formation when soot levels are low.

How were the measurements taken?

The German Aerospace Center (DLR) used a Falcon 20E research aircraft to fly closely behind an Airbus A321neo. The Falcon sampled the exhaust plume and contrails at distances between 40 and 250 meters during 15 flights at an altitude of 10 kilometers.

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Photo Credit: DLR

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Sustainable Aviation

SABA Members Back Infinium eSAF Facility With Long-Term Deals

Google, McKinsey, and others sign binding SAFc agreements to support Infinium Energy’s 100,000 MT/year Texas eSAF project.

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SABA Members Back Infinium eSAF Facility With Long-Term Deals

Corporate members of the Sustainable Aviation Buyers Alliance (SABA) have signed binding, multi-year agreements to purchase sustainable aviation fuel certificates (SAFc) from Infinium Energy’s planned electro-sustainable aviation fuel (eSAF) facility in Texas. The commitments, announced on September 22, 2026, are designed to provide the financial demand signals necessary for Infinium to reach a final investment decision on the project.

In a press release issued by SABA, the organization confirmed that American Airlines (AA) will serve as the physical offtaker for the fuel, managing logistics and delivery. The corporate buyers purchasing the associated certificates include AVEVA, Bain & Company, Google, and McKinsey & Company. The agreement marks the first time SABA’s procurement model has been utilized to directly drive new production capacity for scalable sustainable aviation fuel.

Project Atlas production and environmental targets

Infinium Energy was selected through a SABA procurement process earlier in 2026 to provide ultra-low carbon eSAF. The fuel is produced using waste carbon dioxide and renewable energy, distinguishing it from traditional biofuel pathways that rely on agricultural or waste feedstocks.

The planned Texas facility, designated Project Atlas, is expected to have an annual sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) production capacity of 100,000 metric tons. According to the alliance, the contracted volumes will support an expected greenhouse gas abatement of 212,000 metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (mtCO2e). SABA equates this emissions reduction to approximately 3,500 commercial flights between John F. Kennedy International Airport (JFK) and Los Angeles International Airport (LAX).

“We’re proud to partner with SABA members including AVEVA, Bain & Company, Google, McKinsey, and others, as well as American Airlines to bring Infinium Energy’s next world scale eSAF facility to life. Their commitment reflects a shared conviction that decarbonizing aviation requires real investment in next-generation supply,” said Robert Schuetzle, CEO of Infinium Energy.

Aggregating demand through book-and-claim

The transaction utilizes a book-and-claim model. Corporate buyers purchase the SAFc to claim the environmental benefits against their business travel emissions, while the physical fuel is delivered to partner airlines. This mechanism allows corporations to fund SAF production even when the physical fuel cannot be delivered directly to the airports their employees use.

American Airlines will manage the physical integration of the eSAF into the commercial aviation fuel supply chain. Jill Blickstein, Chief Sustainability Officer at American Airlines, stated that the corporate commitments broaden participation in the SAF market and demonstrate how customers can collaborate with airlines and fuel producers to advance decarbonization.

SABA, a joint initiative of the Environmental Defense Fund (EDF), the Center for Green Market Activation (GMA), and RMI, has aggregated $500 million in SAFc demand from 35 companies to date. Aviation currently accounts for approximately 2 to 3 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions.

“Novel technologies are critical to meeting future demand for sustainable aviation fuel, but they will not be operational in time without investments made today. This procurement demonstrates how aggregated, long-term demand can help take promising eSAF projects from idea to reality,” said Jon Creyts, CEO of RMI.

AirPro News analysis

We view this agreement as a critical structural step for the eSAF market. Power-to-Liquid (PtL) fuels like those planned for Project Atlas face a steep commercialization barrier. They are highly capital-intensive to build and currently produce fuel at a significant cost premium compared to both conventional Jet A and HEFA-based SAF derived from waste fats and oils.

Airlines operate on thin margins and generally cannot absorb the full green premium of eSAF alone. By unbundling the environmental attributes from the physical fuel, the SABA model allows highly capitalized corporate entities like Google and McKinsey & Company to absorb that premium. More importantly, signing binding, multi-year offtake agreements provides the revenue certainty that infrastructure lenders require before financing first-of-a-kind industrial facilities. If Project Atlas reaches a positive final investment decision based on these contracts, it will validate the book-and-claim model as a viable financing mechanism for next-generation aerospace infrastructure.

Sources: Sustainable Aviation Buyers Alliance via PR Newswire

Photo Credit: Sustainable Aviation Buyers Alliance

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Skyfly Axe eVTOL to Debut at AirVenture as FAA MOSAIC Takes Effect

Skyfly Technologies will showcase the Axe eVTOL at EAA AirVenture 2026, aligned with the FAA MOSAIC Phase 2 LSA certification rule.

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Skyfly Axe eVTOL to Debut at AirVenture as FAA MOSAIC Takes Effect

UK and US-based aerospace manufacturer Skyfly Technologies Ltd announced on June 15, 2026, that it will debut its Axe Vertically Capable Aircraft at EAA AirVenture in Oshkosh, Wisconsin, aligning with the final implementation of the Federal Aviation Administration’s new light sport aircraft regulations.

In a press release, the company stated the July 20 to 26, 2026 exhibition coincides directly with the July 24, 2026 effective date for Phase 2 of the Modernization of Special Airworthiness Certification (MOSAIC) rule. This regulatory shift provides a viable certification pathway for personal electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) aircraft by allowing them to be classified as Light Sport Aircraft (LSA) rather than requiring complex transport-category type certification.

Aligning with the MOSAIC framework

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) published the final MOSAIC rule in the Federal Register on July 24, 2025, with Phase 1 taking effect in October 2025. The upcoming Phase 2 implementation replaces the legacy 1,320-pound weight limit for the LSA category with performance-based metrics, such as stall speed limits. This officially permits powered-lift aircraft to qualify for LSA certification, allowing manufacturers to utilize industry consensus standards.

Skyfly Chief Executive Officer Michael Thompson highlighted the regulatory alignment between the company’s design philosophy and the new FAA framework.

“The timing could not be better. The Axe was conceived around a simple idea: that personal vertical flight can be safe and accessible when simplicity, efficiency and redundancy are built into the design. MOSAIC creates a framework that recognizes those principles.”

Prior to the MOSAIC framework, manufacturers of personal eVTOLs faced the prospect of pursuing transport-category type certification. Thompson noted that the special conditions for vertically capable aircraft were designed for transport-level operations, describing the legacy requirement as “completely overkill” for light sport applications.

Axe VCA development and specifications

The Axe Vertically Capable Aircraft (VCA) is a two-seat personal eVTOL intended for private ownership rather than commercial air taxi operations. Designed by Chief Technology Officer Dr. William Brooks, the aircraft utilizes a dual-wing canard design equipped with eight electric motors driving four rotors, generating 280 kW of peak power.

According to company specifications, the Axe has a maximum all-up weight of 690 kg and a payload capacity of 172 kg. The aircraft is designed to achieve a fully electric range of 100 miles and a cruise speed of 100 mph.

Skyfly, headquartered in Oxfordshire, UK, with a US office at SunTrax in Auburndale, Florida, has accumulated 57 customer orders for the Axe as of May 2026.

Flight testing progression and future targets

Founded in 2019, Skyfly has advanced the Axe through multiple testing phases. The aircraft completed its initial manned hover flights in November 2024, followed by piloted fixed-wing test flights in March 2025. In August 2025, the prototype executed a 10-nautical-mile cross-country flight between Turweston and Bicester in the UK, marking a milestone for airfield-to-airfield eVTOL operations in Europe.

The company is currently preparing for transition flight testing to evaluate the shift between vertical and forward flight. Skyfly is also developing a second prototype in the UK, which will feature a new propulsion system and a larger battery to mitigate thermal limitations identified during earlier hover tests. Testing of this upgraded propulsion package is scheduled to begin in late 2026, with the company targeting initial customer deliveries in 2027.

AirPro News analysis

The implementation of the FAA MOSAIC rule represents a structural shift for the lower end of the advanced air mobility market. By removing the prohibitive cost barrier of transport-category type certification, regulators are opening a viable commercial path for private-use eVTOLs. We expect this regulatory clarity to accelerate development timelines for manufacturers like Skyfly, shifting the competitive focus from certification strategy to production scaling and consumer adoption. The presence of the Axe at EAA AirVenture, an event expected to draw 700,000 attendees, signals a deliberate pivot toward the traditional general aviation consumer base, testing whether the experimental and light sport communities are ready to embrace powered-lift technology.

Photo Credit: Skyfly

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Horizon Aircraft Signs LOI With Great Lakes Helicopter for Cavorite X7

Horizon Aircraft and Great Lakes Helicopter sign an LOI for Cavorite X7 MRO, pilot training, and aircraft purchases ahead of commercial debut.

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New Horizon Aircraft Ltd. and Great Lakes Helicopter Corp. signed a Letter of Intent on September 29, 2026, to establish maintenance, repair, and overhaul services, pilot training programs, and aircraft purchases for the Cavorite X7 hybrid-electric aircraft. The agreement secures a critical operational pipeline for the next-generation vertical take-off and landing aircraft ahead of its commercial debut.

Announced in a press release issued by Horizon Aircraft, the partnership pairs the aerospace engineering company with an established Ontario-based flight school and commercial operator. By securing Great Lakes Helicopter as a foundational partner, Horizon Aircraft aims to ensure future operators have immediate access to the maintenance and training infrastructure required to integrate the Cavorite X7 into active fleets.

Building the operational ecosystem

As the Advanced Air Mobility (AAM) sector matures, Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) are increasingly prioritizing the ground infrastructure necessary to support their platforms. The agreement with Great Lakes Helicopter addresses this requirement by leveraging an existing Transport Canada-approved flight training school and charter operator based in Cambridge, Ontario.

Established in 2003, Great Lakes Helicopter operates a fleet of Robinson R22, Robinson R44, and Bell 206 Helicopters. The company’s in-house maintenance division, Rotor Services Limited, has maintained helicopters at the Region of Waterloo International Airport for over 30 years. Under the new agreement, this entity will expand its capabilities to support the Cavorite X7.

“We are building a new Rotor Services maintenance facility that will support next-generation platforms like the X7. Aircraft like this could open up faster, more reliable access to critical services for remote and underserved communities, and we want GLH’s maintenance, training, and operations expertise to be part of making that real,” said Chad McIntosh, Managing Director of Great Lakes Helicopter.

Horizon Aircraft Co-Founder and Chief Executive Officer Brandon Robinson emphasized that establishing this ecosystem is a prerequisite for commercial success. Partnering with an experienced organization gives future customers a defined path toward integrating the hybrid-electric aircraft into their operations.

“Partnering with an experienced MRO and pilot training organisation like Great Lakes Helicopter is an important step as we build the ecosystem needed to support the Cavorite X7 and its future customers. With so many operators and communities poised to benefit from the X7’s capabilities, having reliable maintenance and pilot training in place gives future customers a clearer path toward integrating our next-generation VTOL aircraft into their operations,” Robinson stated.

The Cavorite X7 hybrid-electric approach

The Cavorite X7 differentiates itself from fully electric vertical take-off and landing (eVTOL) competitors through its hybrid-electric architecture. Designed to carry six passengers, the aircraft utilizes a patented fan-in-wing configuration. Electric fans embedded in the wings provide vertical lift, and panels close over these fans during forward flight to reduce aerodynamic drag.

Forward thrust is generated by a Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6 turboprop engine. This engine simultaneously recharges the onboard battery array during flight, removing the requirement for extensive ground charging infrastructure. Horizon Aircraft estimates the Cavorite X7 will achieve a range of 800 km (500 miles) and a top speed of 450 km/h (280 mph).

This hybrid model targets regional air mobility, emergency medical services, and military applications in areas where electrical grid infrastructure is limited. By partnering with established maintenance, repair, and overhaul (MRO) providers like Great Lakes Helicopter, Horizon Aircraft ensures the Cavorite X7 can operate within existing aviation networks without demanding proprietary charging or maintenance facilities.

Transitioning from design to manufacturing

Headquartered in Lindsay, Ontario, New Horizon Aircraft Ltd. was founded in 2013 by former Royal Canadian Air Force fighter pilot Brandon Robinson and his father, Brian Robinson. The company has steadily advanced the Cavorite X7 program, securing a U.S. Department of Defense Phase 1 High Speed Vertical Takeoff and Landing contract in January 2022.

In early 2026, the Cavorite X7 program transitioned from the design phase to manufacturing. Horizon Aircraft locked in the aircraft’s Outer Mold Line design in January 2026. The following month, the company announced manufacturing partnerships, selecting RAMPF Composites to produce the fuselage and North Aircraft to manufacture the wings.

While the September 29, 2026, Letter of Intent includes Great Lakes Helicopter’s intention to purchase Cavorite X7 aircraft, the exact number of airframes and the timeline for commercial production and delivery remain undisclosed.

AirPro News analysis

We view this Letter of Intent as a pragmatic step for Horizon Aircraft, highlighting a critical divergence in strategy within the Advanced Air Mobility sector. While pure eVTOL developers are forced to invest heavily in proprietary charging networks and bespoke maintenance facilities, Horizon’s hybrid-electric design allows it to plug directly into the existing aviation ecosystem. Securing an established MRO and training partner like Great Lakes Helicopter validates this approach, demonstrating that legacy aviation service providers see a viable business case in supporting hybrid platforms. If Horizon can execute on its manufacturing timeline, this plug-and-play operational model could offer a significant advantage in early market adoption, particularly for remote and utility operations.

Photo Credit: New Horizon Aircraft Ltd.

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